This is a personal reflection piece that uses hauntology to interpret a study authored by Graham and Yeh (2023), which examines teachers’ perceptions of challenges and their influence on the execution of Taiwan’s bilingual education. Hauntology, a concept originating from Derrida’s philosophy (2012), refers to the exploration of spectres or ghosts—entities that are neither fully present nor absent but linger in a liminal state, influencing the present through their unresolved past presence. In the context of academic enquiry and cultural analysis, hauntology involves exploring how past events, ideologies, or traumas continue to exert an unseen influence on contemporary realities. Applying hauntology to Graham and Yeh’s paper on bilingual education encourages me to uncover obscured dynamics, shedding light on how these spectral influences shape education and perpetuate challenges in bilingual education initiatives. Throughout, I offer my own interpretations from a hauntological perspective, juxtaposed with Graham and Yeh’s viewpoints and findings.
Figure 1
A screenshot featuring Derrida discussing hauntology.
Note. From the YouTube video Ghost Dance (1983): Jacques Derrida & “The Science of Ghosts”. https://youtu.be/kpRfCYRcPm4?si=3dqHYD0heBwrUa_Y
In their paper, Graham and Yeh note that the target language is seldom used for instruction, although words or basic classroom expressions in the target language might be included in this setup. This differs from a language multiplicity arrangement, where both the target and local languages are actively employed as mediums of instruction and learning. In this model, students are expected to engage with content material and communicate in both languages within the classroom. From a hauntological perspective, this scenario reveals the spectral presence of linguistic hierarchies and past educational paradigms. The rare use of the target language in traditional setups can be seen as the ghostly echo of monolingual instructional models, where the local language dominates, relegating the target language to a secondary, almost invisible role. Conversely, the language multiplicity arrangement attempts to ‘exorcise’ these ghosts by fostering a more even-handed linguistic environment. Here, the target and local languages coexist, allowing students to navigate and negotiate their identities through meaningful engagement with both languages. This arrangement aims to dissolve the spectral boundaries that have historically separated linguistic domains, creating a more synergistic and spirited learning experience.
In viewing the perspective of one participating elementary teacher through hauntological perspectives in Graham and Yeh’s research, their approach to language instruction appears haunted by the spectre of policy ambiguity and the struggle to navigate competing educational imperatives. This teacher’s stance on making the course Mandarin dominant was firm: they had already committed to Mandarin as the primary language of instruction. This did not mean avoiding English entirely; rather, they actively sought opportunities to incorporate English into predominantly Mandarin-driven lessons. Initially, the teacher had attempted to integrate more English based on their interpretation of policy but found this approach ineffective. Consequently, they decided against forcing English into their curriculum. The teacher expressed uncertainty and doubt about their approach, particularly regarding external perceptions of their bilingual practices. They acknowledged that observers might question the balance of languages in their classroom, commenting, ‘That doesn’t seem like a lot of English going on’ (Graham & Yeh, 2023, p. 469). Their background in content teaching likely influenced their prioritisation of subject matter over linguistic balance. This experience illustrates a hauntological paradox: the persistent presence of educational ideals and policy expectations that haunt the enactment of language teaching practices, creating a spectral tension between intended strategies and actual implementation.
Here, I adopt Fisher’s concept of ‘lost futures’ (2013) to explore. ‘Lost futures’ revolves around the idea of unrealised potential and unfulfilled possibilities that were once envisaged but never came to fruition. Fisher, a cultural theorist and critic, examines how certain cultural, political, and social movements of the mid-20th century generated optimistic visions of the future. These visions included utopian projects in architecture, urban planning, and social welfare, aiming for a more harmonious society. However, Fisher argues that the ascendancy of neoliberalism in the late 20th century marked a turning point where many of these aspirations were abandoned or undermined. Economic policies promoting privatisation, deregulation, and individualism contributed to a stagnation in the imagination of alternative futures. In this metaphorical landscape of hauntology, the teacher participant’s predicament can be likened to navigating through a haunted mansion where echoes of unrealised educational aspirations reverberate like lingering apparitions. Despite committing to Mandarin as the primary instructional language, the teacher finds themselves haunted by the spectres of previous attempts to incorporate more English into lessons. These spectral remnants of policy ambiguity and external scrutiny cast doubts on the efficacy of their current approach. The ghosts of past efforts to balance bilingualism continue to haunt their pedagogical decisions, creating a palpable tension between educational ideals and practical implementation. This haunting presence underscores the paradoxical nature of educational policy, where adherence to guidelines is haunted by the shadows of past compromises and external perceptions. Much like a haunted mansion where unseen forces shape the environment, the classroom turns into a sphere where the ghostly influences of educational norms and policy expectations subtly shape every educational interaction.
Graham and Yeh also critique the current bilingual education landscape, arguing that target language dominant arrangements prioritise the target language over local languages, relegating the latter to a secondary, supportive role (Ball & Kelly, 2016). They highlight a lack of explicit guidance regarding the integration of content learning and language acquisition within bilingual classrooms, suggesting that clarity in policy is essential to achieving the intended goals of bilingual education. Without such clarity, they warn of persisting ambiguities in implementation, leading to both deliberate and inadvertent bilingual education models. From a hauntological perspective infused with the concept of ‘lost futures’, the way I interpret this is that Graham and Yeh’s critique resonates as an echo of missed opportunities within educational policy. The dominance of the target language mirrors a neoliberal trajectory where visions of linguistic diversity and balanced bilingualism have been supplanted by a prioritisation of economic efficiency and global competitiveness (Del Percio & Flubacher, 2017; Shin & Park, 2016). This shift has marginalised local languages, casting them as spectral presences in the educational landscape. The absence of clear directives perpetuates a ghostly cycle where educational policies continue to haunt the present, stifling the emergence of more balanced and diverse educational frameworks. Thus, Graham and Yeh’s call for clarity in policy can be seen not only as a practical necessity but also as a quest to exorcise the ghosts of lost educational futures, enabling a more enduring and genuinely bilingual educational system to materialise.
Commenting on Graham and Yeh’s concluding observations using futuristic hauntologies involves projecting forward while acknowledging the lingering influence of historical and present challenges—futuristic hauntologies speculate on future possibilities haunted by ongoing historical reverberations and ‘consider how participation happens across multiple temporalities’ (Gatehouse, 2020, p. 124). From this perspective, Graham and Yeh’s approach to identifying and addressing challenges in designing bilingual education systems resonates as an effort to navigate and transcend the spectres of past educational paradigms. By advocating for clear frameworks like the bilingual education arrangements grid, they aim to mitigate the confusion and disparities in defining bilingual education, paving the way for more coherent and effective educational systems in Taiwan and beyond. However, the spectral presence of unaddressed challenges and differing interpretations continues to cast shadows on the realisation of intended bilingual education outcomes. Thus, embracing a futuristic hauntological approach involves not only envisaging optimised educational futures but also confronting and resolving the ghostly remnants of educational unclearness and discrepancies that linger in the present educational landscape. This dual focus on future possibilities and present spectres allows for a refined exploration of how educational systems can evolve and adapt to meet the diverse needs of multilingual societies in the coming years.
Figure 2
The thumbnail from one of Simple Philosophy’s YouTube videos, which I found really engaging and informative.
Note. From the YouTube video Why is There No Future? - MARK FISHER Lecture https://youtu.be/gM1KswrYKog?si=oxMBU2Kn4xWI2dir
Concluding this piece, I provide my personal take and reflections, drawing from my time as an English high school teacher in Taipei. In reflecting on my experiences in educational environments in Taiwan, I have observed a sense of closure—a lack of interactions among teachers, between schools, and within teaching discussions and debates. Although this could already be different, this isolation often leads teachers to draw upon traces from their own past experiences as students, unwittingly inviting ghosts of outdated educational methods into their classrooms. Hauntology provides a prism through which we can understand this phenomenon: in the absence of exchange and collaboration, teachers may unconsciously perpetuate historical educational practices that might no longer serve the needs of modern students. I am highlighting this not because I view invoking past educational practices as immanently negative, but rather as an opportunity for us to consider what we choose to invite into our classrooms. While the trajectory of bilingual education remains a pressing concern, it is equally vital for teachers and national curriculum developers to embrace a reflective approach—thinking about ‘the epistemological revivification of the past, a recollection through which the past makes itself subjectively present’ (Bozalek et al., 2021, p. 3). By enquiring into past influences and understanding their impact on current practices, educators can better navigate the intersection of tradition and innovation, ensuring that the ghosts of the past do not overshadow the evolving needs of today’s learners.
My final comment is one of optimism: it is encouraging to see teacher communities forming to discuss and exchange ideas about Taiwan’s bilingual education, whether official, informal, or through personal connections. These communities range from policy discussions to teaching methods and include platforms like the Facebook community CLIL, the secondary school English teacher community Dance with Stars, and the inter-school teacher community based at the NSYSU Resource Center for Bilingual Education. I am also pleased to share that my academic efforts contribute to discussions not only about bilingual education but also the broader educational landscape. As an advocate for exploring the uncanny, the persistence of the past, and societal anxieties and desires, I maintain logy-haunto jotter, a repository for my writings on hauntology and the monstrous lens. Additionally, I curate and oversee The Chiaroscuro, which hosts diverse discussions and viewpoints on educational and social issues in Taiwan, Asia, and beyond.
參考資料
Ball, P., & Kelly, K. (2016). Putting CLIL into Practice. Oxford University Press, Incorporated. https://elt.oup.com/catalogue/items/global/teacher_development/oxford_handbooks_for_language_teachers/9780194421058?cc=tw&selLanguage=zh
Bozalek, V., Zembylas, M., Motala, S., & Hölscher, D. (Eds). (2021). Higher Education Hauntologies: Living with Ghosts for a Justice-to-come. Routledge.
Del Percio, A., & Flubacher, M. C. (2017). Language, Education and Neoliberalism. Language, Education and Neoliberalism: Critical Studies in Sociolinguistics, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783098699
Derrida, J. (2012). Specters of Marx: The State of the Debt, the Work of Mourning and the New International. Routledge. https://www.routledge.com/Specters-of-Marx-The-State-of-the-Debt-the-Work-of-Mourning-and-the-New-International/Derrida/p/book/9780415389570
Fisher, M. (2013). Ghosts of My Life: Writings on Depression, Hauntology and Lost Futures. Zero books.
Gatehouse, C. (2020). A Hauntology of Participatory Speculation. Proceedings of the 16th Participatory Design Conference 2020 - Participation(s) Otherwise - Volume 1, 116-125. https://doi.org/10.1145/3385010.3385024
Graham, K. M., & Yeh, Y.F. (2023). Teachers’ implementation of bilingual education in Taiwan: Challenges and arrangements. Asia Pacific Education Review, 24(3), 461-472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-022-09791-4
Shin, H., & Park, J. S. Y. (2016). Researching language and neoliberalism. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 37(5), 443-452. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2015.1071823
Citation (APA 7 format):
Sheng-Hsiang Lance Peng (2024, July 23). Ghosts in the classroom: interpreting Taiwan’s bilingual education filtering through the hauntological prism. Global education linkages: discovering novel trends from the world. https://www.gel-net.com/post/202407-04
